Centre for Automotive Safety Research reports

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Open Access
A survey of bullbar prevalence at pedestrian crash sites in Adelaide, South Australia
(Centre for Automotive Safety Research, 2008) Anderson, R.; Ponte, G.; Doecke, S.; Centre for Automotive Safety Research (CASR)
This survey was designed to examine the proportion of vehicles fitted with bull bars in Adelaide, South Australia, at the sites where pedestrian crashes have occurred in the past. The sample was stratified to examine the prevalence in separate geographical regions of the metropolitan area of Adelaide. Survey results were combined using weights determined from the relative incidence of pedestrian crashes in the three survey strata. Overall, 8.6% of traffic was equipped with bull bars. Bull bar prevalence was much greater amongst heavy vehicles (28%), but heavy vehicles formed only a minor component of the traffic volume. The average site prevalence amongst light vehicle traffic was 7.5%. Site prevalence was lowest in the CBD (average 5.5%) and highest in the Outer Metropolitan Region (average 9.1%). Differences between the site prevalence in each region were statistically significant, and there was additional variation between sites within each region. 4WD vehicles are the most common vehicle type to have a bull bar fitted and 4WD vehicles with bull bars are twice as prevalent at the sites of crashes as the next most common type of bull bar equipped vehicle, work utilities.
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Access to safer vehicle technologies by young drivers: factors affecting motor vehicle choice and effects on crashes
(Centre for Automotive Safety Research, 2013) Anderson, R.; Raftery, S.; Grigo, J.; Hutchinson, T.P.; Department of Infrastructure and Transport (on behalf of the former National Road Safety Council)
Background. This report is an exploratory study of vehicle choices amongst young drivers, their access to safer vehicle technologies and the role that motor vehicle insurance has in shaping those choices. There is a brief review of the literature on vehicle choices made by young drivers, an analysis of the relationship between driver age and access to safer vehicle technology, a survey of young drivers and their parents (examining vehicle choices, knowledge about safety, and the influence of vehicle insurance on vehicle choice), and a summary of discussions with Australian motor vehicle insurance underwriters. Findings. In respect of their level of safety, cars that young drivers crash tend to lag the vehicles at risk of crashing by more mature drivers; this persists for a long time after a technology first becomes available. Previous literature and the present survey indicate that the safety level of a young driver’s vehicle is not the first priority of the young driver or their parents. The motor vehicle insurance industry in Australia prices risk mainly in line with crash frequency and average claim costs. Vehicle safety systems are often not viewed as positively by the motor vehicle insurance industry as they are by other safety-related organisations, as these systems can lead to high repair costs after a crash. However, technologies that do lead to lower claim frequencies and costs are recognised, and some efforts are made to identify these as early as is possible. Recommendations. (a) In promoting safer vehicle access care should be taken not to also encourage motor vehicle use or greater primary access to vehicles. (b) Modifying insurance costs may not be an appropriate means of effecting changes in vehicle choice. (c) Better information, more tailored to the purchasing power and needs of young drivers, is likely to be of help. (d) Changes to family thinking about vehicle allocation and sharing access to vehicles should be encouraged, and information provided to increase understanding about the importance of specific vehicle safety features. (e) Insurance companies might be able to use their claims data to assist their customers to obtain the lowest risk vehicle for their circumstances. (f) Macro-scale interventions (e.g., rapid introduction of new technologies) may be the best long-term solution to maximise the safety of vehicles and the prevalence of safer vehicle technologies for young drivers.
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Advisory Intelligent Speed Adaptation for government fleets
(Centre for Automotive Safety Research, 2011) Doecke, S.D.; Anderson, R.; Woolley, J.; Australasian Intelligent Speed Assist Initiative; Transport Accident Commission (VIC)
This project sought to determine the likely crash savings if state government fleets in Australia were fitted with advisory Intelligent Speed Adaptation (ISA). The cost effectiveness of such a fitment was assessed considering if the ISA device is kept within the government fleet (scenario 1) or if it is left in the government vehicle when it is sold (scenario 2). Data from the fleet vehicles involved in the recent NSW ISA was used. The reduction in crash risk was calculated by applying Kloeden’s risk curves for travel speed to the “before” speed profile and the “ISA active” speed profile found in the trial. The reduction in risk was then estimated in terms of the difference in the total crash risk produced by these speed profiles. ISA was found to have the potential to reduce casualty crashes in government fleets by 20%. It was estimated that this would eliminate 171 casualty crashes involving state government vehicles per year and save $31.6 million in crash costs per year. Scenario 1 was more cost effective than scenario 2, although the wider benefit to the community produced by scenario 2 was not taken into account. Of the four ISA devices considered the navaid device that included ISA functionality was found to be the most cost effective.
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Analysis of crash data to estimate the benefits of emerging vehicle technology
(Centre for Automotive Safety Research, 2011) Anderson, R.; Hutchinson, T.P.; Linke, B.; Ponte, G.; Queensland Department of Transport and Main Roads
The purpose of this report is to estimate the potential benefits of some of the safety technologies emerging for passenger vehicles, trucks and motorcycles. The focus is overwhelmingly on systems that actively prevent crashes, but a few passive safety features are also included. Intelligent speed adaptation is excluded from this report as it is being considered separately in an accompanying report. Direct short-range communication technologies were also outside the scope of the present report. The largest potential for reducing the number of serious and fatal crashes in coming years is likely to come from forward collision detection and avoidance technologies. These technologies currently include emergency brake assist, ‘city-safe’ low speed obstacle detection with automatic braking, and adaptive cruise control with automatic braking (operating sometimes only above, for example, 60 km/h). In the next five years, it is expected that the technologies will continue to develop such that there will be complete convergence in the operable range of systems, and a complete integration of the sensing and intervention technologies. It is from such future systems that the largest road safety gains are likely to be made. However, BCR values for forward collision detection and avoidance in passenger vehicles appear marginal given the present stage of development of the relevant technologies (where such systems might only be used to effect in higher speed limit areas); better estimates of future costs of the relevant technology will be critical to any justification for wide-scale installation. Nevertheless, BCR values support wide-scale installation of forward collision avoidance technologies in trucks. Mechanisms are suggested for accelerating the deployment of cost-effective safety technology into to the Australian passenger fleet.
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Automatic crash notification
(Centre for Automotive Safety Research, 2013) Ponte, G.; Ryan, G.A.; Anderson, R.; Department of Planning, Transport and Infrastructure (SA)
This report presents information relating to a vehicle technology commonly referred to as Automatic Collision (or Crash) Notification (ACN) as well as its relevance in South Australia. The purpose of this vehicle technology is to identify that a collision has occurred and automatically relay the crash notification and location to a third party to initiate a response by emergency medical services. The potential benefit of this system may come from reductions in emergency notification times and a reduction in any uncertainty that emergency services might otherwise have regarding the location of the crash. The analysis presented in this report conservatively estimated that if ACN was fully deployed in the vehicle fleet, road crash fatalities in South Australia in the period 2008-2009, may potentially have been reduced by 2.2% - 4.4%.
Open Access
Benefits for Australia of the introduction of an ADR on pedestrian protection
(Centre for Automotive Safety Research, 2008) Anderson, R.; Ponte, G.; Searson, D.; Centre for Automotive Safety Research (CASR)
This report estimates the benefits to Australia of the adoption of an ADR on pedestrian protection. It compares the sales-weighted performance of the Australian and European new car fleets in relevant pedestrian impact tests, based on test reports from EuroNCAP and ANCAP. These testing programs use very similar tests to those prescribed by the European Directive on pedestrian safety and a proposed Global Technical Regulation. This comparison showed that the pedestrian protection of the new car fleet in Australia is inferior to that of the new car fleet in Europe, and the difference is associated with the introduction of the first phase requirements of the Directive. The benefits to Australia of an ADR on pedestrian protection were calculated, based on benefit calculations that were estimated for a second phase of European regulation due in 2011. Proportional reductions of fatal, serious and slight casualties were applied to Australian casualty data and the associated crash costs. By examining the current performance of the new car fleet, these benefits were disaggregated into benefits that have already accrued since overseas and international regulation was mooted, and that which is yet to be realised through compliance of the new car fleet with a future regulation. An Australian Design Rule conforming to the proposed Global Technical Regulation with the addition of Brake Assist would reduce, in Australia, fatalities by 28, serious injuries by 947 and slight injuries by 1247 each year, with associated savings in crash costs of $385 million per year. Despite recent improvements in the performance of the fleet, around half of these benefits are yet to be realised.
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Crash reduction potential of connected vehicles in South Australia
(Centre for Automotive Safety Research, 2013) Doecke, S.D.; Anderson, R.; Department of Planning, Transport and Infrastructure (SA)
Connected vehicle technology allows vehicles to send and receive information to and from one another, other road users and infrastructure. Although it is not yet available on any production vehicle, on-road trials are well under way. It is likely that connected vehicle technology will enter the market at a time when autonomous emergency braking (AEB) is becoming more common on new vehicles. The purpose of the present research was to estimate the safety benefits of connected vehicle technology in Australian conditions over and above what could be provided by AEB. Central to the methodology employed to achieve this was the application of a collision avoidance system model to simulations of real world crashes investigated by CASR to determine the change in impact speed. The collision avoidance system model was used for this project to not only model sensor based AEB systems but comparable connected vehicles systems to determine the additional crash reduction potential of connected vehicles above that provided by AEB. A literature review was conducted and found that connected vehicles have many safety related applications that can address the South Australian crash types of right angle, right turn, rear end, hit pedestrian, side swipe and head on, though technical difficulties exist for hit pedestrian and head on crashes. Importantly, crash types that are poorly addressed by AEB, right angle and right turn crashes and certain pedestrian crashes, can be addressed by connected vehicle applications. It was found that connected vehicle technology could reduce injury and fatal crashes by an additional 16 to 21 percentage points and 12 to 17 percentage points respectively above the percentage reduction of sensor based AEB. If hit pedestrian or head on crashes can not be addressed by connected vehicles the additional reduction is 14 to 18 percentage points and 7 to 12 percentage points for injury and fatal crashes respectively. The potential of connected vehicles to reduce crashes in South Australia is therefore considerable and the uptake of such technology should be encouraged in ways that are shown to be cost effective.
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Dynamics of the South Australian registered passenger vehicle fleet
(Centre for Automotive Safety Research, 2014) Ponte, G.; Anderson, R.; Kloeden, C.; Lydon, M.; Department of Planning, Transport and Infrastructure (SA)
A number of vehicles registered in South Australia were originally registered elsewhere in Australia, predominantly in New South Wales. A hypothetical scenario is that vehicles transferred from New South Wales to South Australia are more likely to have been involved in a crash in New South Wales, repaired before being on-sold to vehicle purchasers in South Australia and that the South Australian used car market is perhaps at the receiving end of smash repaired vehicles. This study examined registration data from South Australia and registration data and crash data from New South Wales. Very few vehicles were involved in a previous crash in New South Wales prior to transfer to South Australia and for a majority of vehicles the crash rates compared to vehicles retained in New South Wales were not significantly different, so safety concerns about these vehicles are perhaps unjustified. While there were some vehicles from New South Wales that were involved in high-damage crashes and transferred to South Australia, these appear to be clearly identified as such.
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Emerging vehicle safety technology
(Royal Automobile Club of Victoria (RACV), 2014) Searson, D.; Ponte, G.; Hutchinson, T.P.; Anderson, R.; Lydon, M.; RACV
New vehicle safety technologies continue to be developed. This report aims to assess the future impact of light vehicle safety technologies in Australia over the next 30 years. This report includes a literature review, consultation with experts regarding the possible trend in injury reduction over the next 30 years from AEB (Autonomous Emergency Braking) and V2V (Vehicle-to-Vehicle communication). The experts suggested that the most important emerging vehicle safety technologies are primary safety systems that provide increasing levels of autonomy, driver warnings and driver monitoring. AEB was consistently identified as having the most potential in the near future, and this was confirmed in the review of literature. Results demonstrated the importance of introducing new safety technologies as early and as quickly as possible. The experts suggested this could be achieved through mandating the installation of safety technologies, reducing insurance premiums for vehicles with safety technologies, and encouraging their uptake through consumer information and new vehicle assessment programs.
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Factors associated with old car crashes
(Centre for Automotive Safety Research, 2012) Raftery, S.J.; Anderson, R.; Department of Planning, Transport and Infrastructure (SA)
A recent examination of the crashworthiness of vehicles in South Australia revealed that the preponderance of fatal or injury crashes in South Australia were observed to involve young drivers in old cars. It has been proposed that the tendency for younger drivers to drive older vehicles is simply due to the financial costs of buying a car, as such it is likely that the prohibitive costs of buying a new vehicle are likely an issue for other low-income groups. Evidence further indicates that drivers from low SES backgrounds also have an increased crash risk. The aim of the present study is to obtain a better understanding of crashes involving old cars and to identify drivers for whom these crashes are an issue. Using TARS data from 19,648 serious injury or fatal crashes occurring during the period 2001-2009 this study found some evidence that young drivers and drivers from low or middle socio-economic backgrounds are more likely to be involved in a crash involving an older vehicle. There is some evidence that older vehicles carry inherent crash risks. The implications of these findings with regard to vehicle safety technologies are discussed.
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Further analysis of the impact characteristics of the New Zealand Fisheries sea lion exclusion device stainless steel grid: final research report for Ministry of Fisheries
(Centre for Automotive Safety Research, 2011) Ponte, G.; van den berg, A.; Anderson, R.; Ministry of Fisheries, New Zealand
This report documents the test methods, results and analysis used to create a ‘map’ of mild traumatic brain injury risk to sea lions interacting with the grid component of the Sea Lion Exclusion Device (SLED) used in the management of the New Zealand squid fishery. The risk was estimated by testing each of the grid bars within the area of the grid that could be struck by a sea lion during a trawl. The bars were tested at locations along their length at a consistent speed, impactor mass and impact angle. The impact severity was measured according to the head injury criterion (HIC). The results were generalised using a relationship that related the HIC to the speed and mass of the impact, and these were interpolated between locations tested points using curve fitting. Injury risk was estimated from information about human head injury risk modified using scaling methods. An injury risk map was generated that estimates the risk at all possible impact locations across the grid. This map can be modified to allow for variations in head impactor mass, impact speed and impact angle. The results can be used to determine the average impact severity (HIC) and the risk of mild traumatic brain injury (MTBI) at any location, and the average of these across the whole grid, for any set of impact conditions. Given a head mass of 4.8 kg, impact speed of 6 m/s and an impact angle of 90 degrees to the grid, the average HIC of the grid was 551, corresponding to an average risk MTBI of 18%.
Open Access
Headform impact test performance of vehicles under the GTR on pedestrian safety
(Centre for Automotive Safety Research, 2009) Searson, D.; Anderson, R.; Ponte, G.; van den Berg, A.; Centre for Automotive Safety Research (CASR)
A Global Technical Regulation (GTR) on pedestrian safety is currently in its final draft stages, and may be adopted in Australia as an Australian Design Rule. Currently, selected new vehicles are tested by the Australasian New Car Assessment Program (ANCAP) for pedestrian protection; the GTR testing procedure is similar, but has different test conditions. The goal of this study was to estimate how many vehicles tested by ANCAP might be expected to pass the headform testing requirements of the GTR based on the vehicles ANCAP performance. Initially, three popular vehicles were tested to the specifications of the GTR. The resulting data was used to validate a theoretical relationship that predicts the change in Head Injury Criterion (HIC) for a given change in headform mass and impact speed. This relationship was used to predict the best-case and worst-case results for 60 vehicles previously tested by ANCAP, 33 of which are current models. The results indicate that a relatively small number of vehicles would be expected to unequivocally pass the GTR requirements, however many more may pass with little to no modifications.
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Impact characteristics of the New Zealand Fisheries sea lion exclusion device stainless steel grid: final research report for Ministry of Fisheries
(Centre for Automotive Safety Research, 2010) Ponte, G.; van den berg, A.; Anderson, R.; Ministry of Fisheries, New Zealand
This report documents the instrumentation, test methods, results and analysis used to assess the likelihood of brain injury to a sea lion as a result of a head impact with a sea lion exclusion device (SLED) stainless steel grid. The testing used a validated method for measuring head impact injury in human pedestrians and was then subsequently scaled and extrapolated with consideration of the head and brain mass of the New Zealand sea lion. The results of the tests are used as the basis of a graphical method for determining a range of the likelihood of a brain injury, based on swim speed and effective sea lion head mass, for particular impact locations. The results indicate that an impact with the grid may induce some sort of brain injury in sea lions; the risk of life-threatening brain injury to a female sea lion in a 10 m/s collision with the SLED grid at the stiffest location tested may be higher than 85%. Although some assumptions were made to arrive at the results, this report provides base-line results for the impact characteristics for the current grid design. This will allow a baseline for the assessment of future grid modifications.
Open Access
Impediments to the use of child restraints
(Centre for Automotive Safety Research, 2009) Edwards, S.A.; Anderson, R.; Wundersitz, L.; Centre for Automotive Safety Research (CASR)
A focus group was conducted in June 2005 with a small group of five participants recruited at Adelaide metropolitan preschools to explore the social, educational and economic impediments preventing South Australian families from age-appropriate child restraint use. The participants had a total of five children less than seven years of age who were using an adult seatbelt. All participants considered themselves to be low income earners. The participants completed a brief pre-focus group questionnaire, covering the themes to be discussed during the focus group. Children in the booster seat age range had progressed to an adult seatbelt prematurely, however, participants endorsed the use of a booster seat at times where they perceived a high risk situation. The major reasons for premature progression to the adult seatbelt were safety (adult seatbelt was perceived as safer than the booster seat), knowledge and size of the vehicle. Further catalysts were to foster the child’s independence, the perceived maturity of the child, frustration, convenience, height and weight. Generally, the participants felt that information on child restraint use and related legislation is not readily accessible to the public. The findings are in conjunction with the results of our larger driver survey.
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New motorcycle safety technology : an overview for South Australia
(Centre for Automotive Safety Research, 2015) Ponte, G.; Searson, D.; Royals, J.; Anderson, R.; Department of Planning, Transport and Infrastructure (SA)
The popularity of motorcycling in South Australia is rising and there have been increasing numbers in registrations and total distance travelled by riders. However, motorcyclists remain vulnerable road users and are at a higher risk of being involved in a serious crash. In 2012, motorcycle crashes were 17.5 times more likely to result in a fatality in SA relative to other vehicles, per distance travelled. There have been considerable improvements to passenger vehicle safety over the last few decades but little has changed regarding safety for motorcycles. This report describes the relatively new technologies of anti-lock braking systems (ABS), combined braking systems (CBS) and traction control systems (TCS) for motorcycles, and the effectiveness of these systems in reducing motorcycle crashes. Mechanisms to encourage uptake of these technologies are also presented. ABS appears to be the most beneficial of these technologies and an analysis of ABS is included, estimating the potential benefit of the technology for South Australian motorcyclists.....
Open Access
On-road observational survey of restraint and child restraint use, 2009
(Centre for Automotive Safety Research, 2009) Wundersitz, L.; Anderson, R.; Centre for Automotive Safety Research (CASR)
On-road observational surveys of restraint use provide a valuable means of obtaining information on the current level of restraint use and on the characteristics (vehicle, occupant, location) of non-use of restraints. Several observational surveys of restraint use in passenger vehicles have been conducted in South Australia between 1998 and 2002. This report presents the results of a new on-road observational survey undertaken in March 2009 to monitor the levels of restraint use by occupants of passenger vehicles in areas previously surveyed in South Australia: metropolitan Adelaide and five rural regions. Trained field observers recorded the vehicle type, plates displayed on the vehicle, and the seating position, gender and restraint use of vehicle occupants including the uses and types of any child restraints. For the first time in this series of surveys, restraint use was observed on weekends in addition to weekdays. Observed rates of restraint wearing for all vehicle occupants were relatively high, ranging from 98.9% in Murray Bridge (on a weekend) to 96.8% in Clare (on a weekday). Rear seat passengers had the lowest observed rates of restraint wearing. Adult males wore seat belts less often than adult females. Child restraint use varied by region but was relatively high. Findings from this survey might assist in the development of restraint use publicity campaigns and the monitoring of their effectiveness.
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Potential benefits of forward collision avoidance technology
(Department of Transport and Main Roads, Queensland, 2012) Anderson, R.; Doecke, S.D.; Mackenzie, J.; Ponte, G.; Paine, D.; Paine, M.; Department of Transport and Main Roads, Queensland Government; Department of Infrastructure and Transport (Australian Government))
Main points • The simulation study detailed in this report predicts significant crash reductions with the introduction of forward collision avoidance technology (FCAT) systems. • Between 20 and 40 per cent of all fatal crashes and between 30 and 50 per cent of all injury crashes might be prevented with FCAT systems (note that these figures do not account for any unreliability in operation). • The estimates are consistent with previous studies that have suggested reductions of up to and in excess of 40 per cent. • The greatest estimated benefit is from a system that combines long and short range sensing. • Systems with expansive fields of view and that are highly reactive have a greater theoretical effect, but may suffer from the problem of false-positive responses. • A narrow field of view that reduces the chance of false-positive interventions appears to provide substantial benefit; the results of such a system were comparable to a system with a wide field of view. • Estimated benefit-cost ratios (BCR) for passenger vehicles are marginal at less than one in most instances, due to high system costs and declining per-vehicle crash rates. However, a halving of system costs would see BCRs exceed one. • Heavy vehicle BCRs are much higher: between 2.7 and 9.8. Recommendations • Encourage the uptake of FCAT systems by heavy vehicle operators and in passenger vehicle markets as soon as possible. • Liaise with industry groups such as the Federal Chamber of Automotive Industries and the Truck Industry Council with a view to finding pathways for the wider-scale introduction of FCAT technologies. • In programs such as the Australasian New Car Assessment Program (ANCAP), provide substantial credit for the installation of effective FCAT systems. • Encourage the creation of performance standards for such systems, to ensure uniformly high effectiveness, and to provide a means of assessment by ANCAP. • Monitoring and evaluation of systems as they are introduced, to confirm or otherwise the benefits of the systems that have been estimated via simulation in this study and similar studies.
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Prevention of head injuries to car occupants: an investigation of interior padding options
(Federal Office of Road Safety, Transport and Communiations, 1997) McLean, J.; Fildes, B.; Kloeden, C.; Digges, K.; Anderson, R.; Moore, V.; Simpson, D.; Centre for Automotive Safety Research (CASR)
Head injuries to car occupants resulting from crashes on Australian roads are a major cause of death and permanent brain damage. This report evaluates the benefits that would be likely to accrue from the use of padding materials to reduce the severity of impacts to the head. A review of the international literature was conducted to examine the range of possible countermeasures, with particular reference to padding the upper interior of the passenger compartment. Three sets of data analyses were then carried out: first, a summary of objects typically struck by the head in a representative sample of crashes; secondly, an examination of actual brain injuries sustained in a sample of crashes, and an assessment of likely outcomes had the objects struck by the head been padded; and finally, a HARM analysis to estimate the cost of head injuries and the likely financial benefits from various countermeasures. Results indicate that there is considerable potential for reducing the severity and consequences of impacts to the head by padding the upper interior of the passenger compartment. The total annual benefit of this measure, in terms of reduced HARM, would be about $123 million, or $154 per car (with a 5% discount rate). However, an even greater level of protection would be provided by the use of protective headwear. The total benefits associated with headwear in the form of a soft shell bicycle helmet were estimated to be $380 million (assuming a fully airbag equipped fleet), or $476 per car ($626 for cars without airbags).
Open Access
The effect of bull bars on head impact kinematics in pedestrian crashes
(Centre for Automotive Safety Research, 2009) Anderson, R.; Doecke, S.; van den Berg, A.; Searson, D.; Ponte, G.; Centre for Automotive Safety Research (CASR)
This study sought to assess the effect of bull bars on the head kinematics and head impact severity of an adult pedestrian in a collision. Multibody models were created to represent a range of sport-utility vehicles and common bull bar geometries and materials. The contact-impact behaviours of the pedestrian-vehicle interactions were determined from a series of impact tests with the vehicles and the bull bars being modelled. A generalised Hunt-Crossley damping model was fitted to the test data. The interaction models were implemented in MADYMO models of a vehicle pedestrian collision using the geometry of the vehicles and bull bars and a fiftieth percentile male human model. Head kinematics were extracted and the head impact severity estimated. The speed of the head impact with the bonnet was increased by between 7 and 55 percent in simulations where a bull bar was fitted to the vehicle. The increase in head impact velocity was not related to the bull bar material type. The 55 percent increase in head impact speed produced a 249 percent increase in HIC value, using a head-bonnet interaction model based on Australasian NCAP head impact test results. The location of the head impact was affected by the bull bar but the effect was not consistent. The simulation results show that the addition of a bull bar to the front of a vehicle increases the speed of the head impact with the bonnet. This speed increase appears to be less a product of the material the bull bar is made from, but more a product of the geometry of the bull bar. This suggests that bull bar geometries could be altered to improve pedestrian collision kinematics possibly even lessening the severity of the head impact with the bonnet. Combined with a soft material, such as polymer, this may lead to a safer bull bar designs for pedestrians.
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Vehicle design and operation for pedestrian protection: accident simulations and reconstructions
(Vehicle Safety Standards, Department of Transport and Regional Services, 2003) Anderson, R.; Streeter, L.; Ponte, G.; Sommariva, M.; McLean, A.; The Commonwealth Department of Transport and Regional Services; Centre for Automotive Safety Research (CARS)
This report details the reconstruction of impacts between pedestrians and cars. The principal aim of performing the reconstructions was to examine how injuries sustained by pedestrians in real life relate to the results of reconstruction tests that used the impactors designated by the European Enhanced Vehicle-safety Committee (EEVC) for assessing pedestrian protection. The methodology of this study included accident investigation, computer simulation, and the physical reconstruction in a laboratory of impacts that occurred in the accident cases that were investigated. The accident investigation process provided the impact speed of the vehicles in each case, details of the contact between pedestrian and car, and the resulting injuries. This information was used to simulate the car-pedestrian collision in each case using the computer program, MADYMO. The simulation of the collision reproduced the kinematics of the pedestrian in the collision and provided estimates of the conditions of the impacts between the car and the pedestrian's leg, upper leg and head. Specifically, the simulation provided the relative angle and velocity of the head with respect to the car, just prior to impact. It also provided the relative angle, velocity and effective mass of the upper leg prior to impact. The striking speed of the vehicle was used as an estimate of the relative velocity of the lower leg on impact. Ten pedestrian accidents were selected from a pool of 80 cases that had been previously investigated by the Road Accident Research Unit. The head impact from every case was reconstructed, and a total of 10 leg impacts were reconstructed in the manner described above. The results of each simulation were used to set the impact conditions of the EEVC subsystem impactors. A car of the same make, model and series as the car involved in the accident was used in the physical reconstruction of the impact, and the impact point on each vehicle was the same as the one identified on the case vehicle by the accident investigation. The results of the impact reconstructions were then compared to the severity of any injury caused by the associated impact in the accident. The main findings were that the head impact test designated by the EEVC is a sound predictor for severe head injury in actual pedestrian collisions, as measured by the Abbreviated Injury Scale. Impacts that exceeded the acceptable limit of a HIC value of 1000 were positively associated with head injuries that were AIS3 or above (p = 0.0238, by Fisher's exact test). The results of the leg impact reconstructions were more equivocal. The acceleration of the lower section of the EEVC WG10 Full Legform appears to be positively associated with the severity of any fractures of the tibia and fibula. However, the bending and shearing of the knee joint in the legform does not appear to relate to the presence of ligamentous damage to the knee. At this stage, too few Upper Legform tests have been used to reconstruct upper leg impacts, to make any firm conclusions regarding the accuracy of this test. We recommend that consideration be given to further evaluation of the subsystem impactors and their associated test methods. This report contains results that support the use of the Headform test for the evaluation of pedestrian protection, but further research is needed to assess the appropriateness of the Full and Upper Legform tests.

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