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This collection contains Honours, Masters and Ph.D by coursework theses from University of Adelaide postgraduate students within the School of Education. The material has been approved as making a significant contribution to knowledge.
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Item Open Access How to promote EAL students' English capability in high school in Australia(2022) Zhang, Qian; Thompson, Murray; School of EducationWith the growth of the economy and globalization, Australia attracts a large number of international students, most of whom do not speak English as their first language. This language limitation has resulted in many international students not being able to integrate well into the Australian living and learning environment. Effectively helping these students overcome the language barrier is one of the difficulties teachers face in the classroom. In order to help teachers, find effective ways to improve the students' English language ability in the classroom. This study focuses on how teachers can improve the English language skills of EAL students by providing effective assistance to EAL students in the classroom. The study puts the main focus on how to improve students' English speaking skills. It investigates and evaluates whether teachers in EAL classes can effectively help students improve their speaking skills by providing them with Corrective Feedback (CF) in speaking. Specifically, this study combines theory with practice by evaluating the CF approach in the context of multicultural education in Australia, and by taking into account specific student characteristics to assess whether the CF approach is suitable for teachers to use directly in the classroom and can effectively help students improve their English capability.Item Open Access What is the Most Effective Method for Teaching Improvisation in the Music Classroom?(2022) Selby, Owen; Thompson, Murray; School of EducationImprovisation is a wonderful aspect of music which offers musicians the opportunity to engage in creative self-expression, while simultaneously providing benefits to brain activity across all areas. A large proportion of music teachers lack confidence in teaching improvisation, often stemming from a lack of experience improvising themselves and research has indicated teachers want support in becoming more capable in this area. From the students’ perspective, improvisation can be a daunting prospect because it often leads to anxiety about making mistakes, and embarrassment in front of their peers. The purpose of this study is to provide music teachers with information about the optimum method to assist students grow as improvisors, and view improvisation as an enjoyable activity rather than something to be nervous about. This study conducted a systematic review of existing literature related to music improvisation education by searching databases for studies conducted since 2010. Data were extracted from the information contained within literature that passed a quality and relevancy test, and each piece of literature was evaluated to determine to what extent it would contribute to the findings of this study. The data were analysed to find commonalities across the literature and to evaluate the strength of contrasting ideas, and the findings were synthesised to produce the answers to the research questions. The data demonstrated that creating a supportive, relaxed environment where students are encouraged to take risks and not be afraid of making mistakes is incredibly important in designing an improvisation class. There were contrasting opinions on how a teacher could do this, with a clear division between advocacy for highly-structured improvisation activities, or emphasising improvisation as a communicative practice. Some of the data indicated that if students were asked to follow a pre-ordained structure when improvising, they would feel comfortable as they have a set of notes to stick to and an understanding of the direction of the music, as opposed to being overwhelmed by choice and lacking an idea of where to start. Other data displayed that in fact, asking students to stick to a structure would lead to worries about playing wrong notes, and it is more beneficial for students to be thinking about self-expression and their role within the ensemble when they are improvising, not getting worked up about individual note choice. A unanimous finding was the role strong aural skills plays in students’ development, as the data strongly displayed that methodologies which include aural activities lead to evident achievement in improvisation. This study definitively demonstrates that students engage most effectively in improvisation when the teacher creates a classroom environment which does not instil fears over making mistakes and encourages risk-taking, as well as accentuates the role of aural development in their teaching methodology. Further studies are needed to resolve what approaches are best at reducing students’ nerves, as this research project could not determine whether structured improvising, or free improvisation, is more agreeable to students.Item Open Access Mindfulness: Is it the missing link in the Australian Student Wellbeing Framework?(2022) Southern, Mikayla; Thompson, Murray; Macleod, Lynda; School of EducationThe Australian Student Wellbeing Framework (ASWF) is a new addition to the standards and protocols teachers are required to meet, designed to create the best foundation for students to reach their aspirations, through supporting their wellbeing. The ASWF provides resources for teaching students about wellbeing, but lacks practical activities to improve wellbeing. Mindfulness is becoming increasingly popular in the literature due to its well-established connection to wellbeing and other positive outcomes of its practice. The objective of this study was to determine if a school-based mindfulness intervention would be beneficial to secondary student wellbeing and support academic performance, as part of the ASWF. The qualitative study took the form of a systematic review, in which 16 papers reporting on school-based mindfulness interventions were analysed. These articles were assessed for quality, prior to inclusion, using the MMAT and CRAAP test. The participants were secondary school-aged students from a variety of different backgrounds: culturally, linguistically, socio-economically, and geographically. Thematic analysis was conducted, and seven overarching themes emerged: academic performance, goal setting and relevance to life, interest in program and engagement, intervention delivery, emotional and behavioural changes, self-improvement and progress, and attention, awareness, and concentration. These themes identified key components of school-based mindfulness interventions. Improvements in student academic performance were found to be related to mindfulness interventions. Interestingly, goal setting was an important component to student engagement and the effectiveness of the intervention, this allowed students to see practical applications for the skills they were learning and how they were relevant to their daily lives. The interest students had in the program was related to their engagement and attendance, which led to reduced problematic behaviour and improved academic performance. The intervention delivery, with multiple sub-themes, provided valuable information; student comments and research findings were used to determine the best method for implementing a mindfulness intervention in secondary schools. The positive emotional and behavioural changes, which occurred as a result of the mindfulness intervention, led to greater student resilience and wellbeing. Moreover, there was less need for behaviour management, with a consequent increase in teaching and learning time, resulting in improvements in the teaching and learning environment. Students experienced improved self-concept, in all areas including academics, leading to more positive attitudes towards their own ability to learn. As a result of the mindfulness intervention, students experienced increases in selective attention and the capacity to divert focus away from distractors, as well as consequent improved academic outcomes. This study concludes with recommendations for mindfulness interventions in secondary schools, including a practical resource for teachers and schools to foster student wellbeing and improved academic performance, as part of the ASWF.Item Open Access Is there actually a middle school plunge?(2022) Langsford, Louisa; MacLeod, Lynda; School of EducationThe middle school plunge (West & Schwerdt, 2012) is a phenomenon based on the disparity in academic achievement that occurs when students transition from a primary school to a middle school. The purpose of this study was to determine if the middle school plunge exists, and if it did exist, what factors contributed to its effect on middle school students’ learning other than the transition from primary to middle school. Furthermore, this study aimed to investigate how the effects of the middle school plunge could potentially be avoided or completely mitigated to improve the learning experience of middle school students. Education databases were used to find research papers and books published between 1993 to 2020 on the middle school plunge and middle school academic achievement and motivation. Based on the research, thematic analysis was then used to determine the key contributing factors to the middle school plunge. Six key themes were identified, which were the transition from primary to middle school, the effects of adolescence on learning, teachers’ preconception of students’ capacity for learning, peer and student-teacher relationships, the potential impacts of socio-economic status and the effects of school climate and culture. Based on these six key themes, a systematic literature review was employed to analyse and synthesise the information presented in the previously published literature. The systematic review determined that the middle school plunge does exist as students in years 7-9 are more likely to experience a drop in academic achievement and engagement, compared to primary and senior school students. This research study determined that it is necessary to not only consider the transition from primary to middle school but also the five additional aspects of middle school students’ lives that affect their ability to be academically successful. Furthermore, the results determined that middle school students who are from disadvantaged socio-economic backgrounds are affected the most by the effects of the middle school plunge as they have compounded general factors such as the effects of adolescence and the transition from primary to middle school, which impede their abilities to achieve academically. Therefore, this research is significant as it helps to identify the ways students’ learning is affected, which can help teachers to know how to alter their practice so that students who are more susceptible to the effects of the middle school plunge can be properly supported. This research paper suggested recommendations such as improving peer and student-teacher relationships to increase students’ feelings of belonging and sense of inclusion, which increases their willingness to actively engage in learning. Furthermore, it is recommended that teachers create tasks and assessments which have strong connections to students’ real-life experiences to make learning relevant for them, which assists in increasing student engagement, and therefore academic achievement. Additionally, this research study highlighted the limited recent research into middle school students’ education, therefore further research on the efficacy of middle school is recommended. This is so teachers are provided with more resources to help them improve their teaching practice for middle school students and reduce or completely mitigate the effects of the middle school plunge.Item Open Access Learning in Lockdown: Strategies for Success in Emergency Remote Instrumental Music Tuition(2022) Tivendale, Hannah N.; MacLeod, Lynda; School of EducationThe past several years have seen large numbers of educational facilities across the world transition to emergency remote learning, in the wake of mandates imposed as a response to the outbreak of the novel coronavirus, SARS-CoV-2 (often referred to simply as ‘covid’ or ‘covid-19’). Since March 2020, more than 168 million students worldwide have been prevented from attending school in the classroom. Indeed, at the time of writing, there are eleven schools in South Australia, alone, which have resorted to remote learning—and this two years in from the onset of covid-19. A consequence of transitioning to remote learning is that teachers of instrumental music, who typically rely on kinaesthetic models of learning, have been forced to move to a medium which, firstly, does not permit the use of traditional teaching techniques and, secondly, has the potential to negatively affect visual and audio perceptions, which are integral to learning in this subject. In asking the question, what is the best teaching and learning approach to optimise student engagement for instrumental music tuition during emergency remote learning, this study was able to confirm the hypotheses that a) the most effective way to teach during emergency remote learning is to translate key teaching qualities into the remote learning medium, and b) all students can learn remotely. Using cognitive behavioural theory and Biesta’s three functions of education as a framework, this Literature Review analysed and synthesised data in the emerging research field of emergency remote learning, and translated the findings to instrumental music tuition. Six themes emerged from the literature: 1) Organisation, Planning and Preparation, with additional time being needed to gain familiarity with new technology and online learning platforms; 2) Family Involvement and the need for connection and communication with parents/guardians, which was amplified during periods of remote learning, as parents/guardians were responsible for providing the relational aspect of teaching and creating a positive learning environment; 3) Inequalities in Emergency Remote Learning were frequently highlighted, with students of higher socio-economic backgrounds placed at a clear advantage, having easier access to technology and support networks; 4) Teacher Wellbeing was found to be something often overlooked, due to teachers’ dedication to meet student needs; 5) Digital Issues meant it was necessary to redefine learning goals to accommodate the circumstances, as well as to make considerations for the videoconferencing learning platforms; and 6) Student Wellbeing was found to be the best focus for student learning during this time, accommodating student needs through showing sensitivity to the circumstances and balancing expectations with empathy. Thus, the current literature found that thorough preparation, consideration of teacher/student wellbeing and communication with parents/guardians are the foundations from which successful learning can occur (measured in terms of student engagement), not only during periods of emergency remote learning but also in traditional, face-to-face learning. The paper concludes with a number of practical applications, drawn from the themes in the literature (such as selecting easier repertoire for students, providing parents/guardians with tips on creating a positive learning environment and creating a new work-life balance that honours the teacher’s wellbeing, to name but a few), as well as suggestions for future research topics.Item Open Access Flipping the classroom: Can changing delivery of the Australian Middle School Science Curriculum Improve Student Outcomes?(2022) Scherer, Benjamin Luke; Thompson, Murray; School of EducationFlipped Classroom (FC) pedagogy promotes active student learning and facilitates integration of technology within an ‘inverted’ learning environment. As such, this approach has experienced rapid global uptake over the past decade on the back of a rapidly evolving educational landscape. Through reversing conventional classroom and homework routines, a classroom ‘flip’ introduces students to new learning concepts outside of the traditional school setting, via online resources such as instructional videos, vodcasts, or interactive online platforms. Students may work through this novel content at a pace and frequency which suits their individual requirements. Subsequent within-class time is aimed at extending and establishing new knowledge through fostering an active, inquiry-based learning structure. The classroom setting in which inquiry takes place is student-centred, allowing the teacher to act as a guide or facilitator to group inquiry systems, assisting when needed, and whose presence provides a scaffold for student learning opportunities. This scheme is embedded within the framework of social constructivism, encouraging students to share, discuss, and reason within a communal framework to build knowledge. It firmly establishes students, both individually and collectively, at the centre of their personal learning. The FC model is encapsulated within one of six innovative pedagogical clusters recently identified by the OECD as focusing on developing 21st century skills and increasing engagement, motivation, and agency in students. The Australian F-10 science curriculum relies heavily on inquiry-based learning as a core construct, using scientific knowledge acquired through evidence, the development of communication skills and student collaboration to solve problems with real-world applications. When considered against the context of the Australian F-10 science curriculum, the FC presents an opportunity to prepare young learners to meet challenges facing both contemporary and future society. The purpose of the present study was to assess whether flipping the classroom is effective across 3 determinants of student engagement and performance - academic learning outcomes (ALO), students’ perceived learning outcomes (PLO) and student satisfaction outcomes (SSO). Further, with a primary focus on middle school science classes, it sought to resolve whether the FC strategy is suitable for widespread uptake in teaching of the years 7 to 10 Australian science curriculum. A qualitative systematic review of literature relating to the flipped classroom and its applicability towards science education was conducted. Only primary data, sourced from empirical studies published between 2012 and 2022, in peer-reviewed journals, dissertations or theses were considered. A total of 36 studies were included in the final review. Results showed that of the 3 determinants of student outcomes (ALO, PLO, SSO), no studies found a significant decrease in performance through use of flipped learning when compared to control groups. Further, ALOs significantly improved through use of the FC model when compared to control in 21 high school-based studies, with 8 showing no difference. PLOs including engagement, comprehension, autonomy, and completion of pre-learnings were significantly increased in 21 studies, with 3 showing no difference. SSOs, such as enthusiasm, motivation to learn and subject enjoyment, improved significantly in all of 14 studies when FC delivery was compared to control groups. Issues which may act as enablers or barriers to successful implementation of the FC were also identified and are reported on, including teacher proficiency in model delivery and technological competency for both student and teacher. The results of this inquiry align with other recently published systematic reviews and meta-analyses, adding to a burgeoning research repository demonstrating beneficial effects of the FC model. The study concludes that flipping the classroom is a promising, learner-centred pedagogy suitable for developing active learners through delivery of the Australian middle school science curriculum.Item Open Access How does sport develop character at an all-boys’ school?(2020) McCallum, Heath; White, Mathew; School of EducationSchools, and particularly independent all-boys’ schools, spend significant time and financial resources providing sporting opportunities to their students on the assumption that competitive sport provides important character development opportunities. Competitive sport may also have tangible negative impacts on character development, including promoting violence and bullying, reinforcing gender stereotypes, and promoting heteronormative ideals. Given the rich historical role sport plays in many allboys’ schools, this can be a difficult to reconcile. This research investigates how sport develops character at an all-boys’ school in Adelaide, South Australia, adopting the neo-Aristotelian framework developed by the Jubilee Centre for Character and Virtues. Using document analysis to review the historical relationship between character education and sport, the research finds that there is significant rhetoric when it comes to the claims about sport, but little evidence about its benefits. The study argues there is potential for character development from competitive sport, but only with well-designed frameworks with well-trained staff in coaching positions. Without a comprehensive character education framework at the school level (or better yet the national level), there are diminishing returns to time and financial resource investment by schools. Schools must also be mindful of the potential negative implications from promoting a culture where sport dominates, particularly the impact it has on the boy’s achievement gap, and those students who do not possess natural athletic ability. This tension applies to every school in Australia, though more research is needed on the character development potential of competitive sport, the potential harm a sports culture can do to students, and how to get the most benefit out of time spent on sport.Item Open Access How does outdoor education develop character and spirituality in an all-boys school?(2020) James, Catherine; White, Mathew; School of EducationThis dissertation will investigate the role outdoor education plays to develop character and spirituality in an all-boys school. Many independent all-boys’ schools in Australia use outdoor education as a mechanism to develop character as part of a holistic curriculum. Outdoor education is far from a series of disjointed activities completed in an outdoor environment, it has the opportunity to integrate and develop character and spirituality in adolescents. This study asks, how does outdoor education develop character and spirituality in an all-boys school? Adopting the neo-Aristotelian theoretical framework of character education, developed by the Jubilee Centre, the dissertation investigates the application of character and spirituality in an outdoor education program at an all-boys school (n=1100) in Adelaide, established in 1867.This dissertation highlights and critiques the frameworks for character, spirituality and outdoor education from the literature, analyses how character and spirituality may be integrated within an outdoor education program and evaluates the opportunities to integrate character and spirituality in an all-boys school. A systematic literature review and document analysis was undertaken. Documents analysed included the Research School’s outdoor educational programs from years 3 to 9. The results of the analysis highlight how outdoor educational experiences are out of balance within the development of different character virtues, as they are dominated by the performance virtues, whilst overlooking the intellectual, moral and civic virtues. Following the analysis, the dissertation provides for three recommendations. Firstly, a comprehensive audit of all the activities in the outdoor education programs, to identify the character and spirituality developments. Secondly, further debate with senior leadership regarding the more comprehensive integration between school values, culture and outdoor education. Finally, an ongoing recommendation of staff development and learning to ensure the alignment of these theories within teaching practices.Item Open Access Evaluation of a Sexuality and Relationships Education Program Taught in a Year 8 South Australian Classroom(2020) Hogan, Samantha J.; Bleeze, Rachel; School of EducationSexuality and relationships education have changed dramatically over the past few decades. A renewed emphasis on curriculum developers to embed sexuality and relationships education with a holistic human rights-based approach is of increasing importance. This involves developing skills to empower students to make informed decisions and navigate safe and fulfilling relationships. While there are governing documents to guide curriculum developers to develop such a curriculum, often these guidance’s are ambiguous in nature and lack robust instruction. Additionally, the problem so often in education is that there are no obligations for curriculum developers to evaluate or monitor the quality of their programs. Therefore, exactly how does SRE encompass a holistic human-rights based to sexuality and relationships education and empower young people to live healthier lives? The purpose of this research is to develop a response to such an inquiry. An evaluation will be conducted on a Sexuality and Relationships Education Program which was provided by the program facilitator. This research employs the theoretical methodology of an intrinsic case study approach to conduct this evaluation. As essential process of this research was the development of a conceptual framework. This framework incorporates evaluating the input, context, process, and product factors of the program and the chosen guiding documents. The development of this evaluation provided strengths and limitations of the Sexuality and Relationships Education Program that cultivate the concepts addressed in the program. Recommendations for the Sexuality and Relationships Education Program are provided to assist the program facilitator, and other curriculum developers, to implement effective programs that empower young people. Additionally, this research aids to instil the importance of conducting program evaluations as a critical aspect to any curriculum implementation. Conducting this research has led to program recommendations and suggestions and revealed alternative directions for research on strategies to address key concepts of sexuality and relationships in schools concerning key concepts, including pornography and consent, which many teachers are often too hesitant to address in the classroom.Item Open Access Exploring the impacts of character education on developing citizenship(2020) McCann, Jacqueline; School of EducationThis study investigates the application of character education in a middle-years school setting using a case study approach. This research investigates whether or not the construct of character education supports students to flourish as active citizens within their school environment. A case study has been undertaken in a middle-years school that has applied a character education framework. The case study interrogates whether the application of a character education framework impacts on student behaviour. The research identifies whether characteristics related to both positive education and character education have emerged that indicate students are moving towards becoming active and informed citizens both within their school setting and beyond since research indicates that active civic participation at school is a valuable predictor of later civic behaviour. The findings are then evaluated through the critically reflective lens of Gert J.J. Biesta to assess the value of character education in the delivery of civics and citizenship education in an Australian setting. This research provides early indications that the development of a bespoke character education framework may lead to stronger overall wellbeing outcomes and, if implemented effectively, has the potential to move students towards the goal of active citizenship.Item Open Access Outdoor Learning Spaces; The use of outdoor learning spaces in shaping student learning experiences in Australian secondary schools(2019) Gilbert, Emily; School of EducationInsight into the current use of outdoor learning spaces to engage secondary school students and shape their learning experiences in Australian educational contexts is provided through a narrative literature methodology. The benefits of the use of outdoor learning spaces for teaching adolescent students are shared along with limitations and challenges. Connections between The Australian Curriculum, other curriculum documents and effective pedagogies and the use of outdoor learning spaces are outlined to highlight the importance of the use of these spaces and to frame suggestions for their improved use across learning areas. The lack of literature that describes the current use of outdoor learning spaces in Australian secondary schools provides the rationale for this dissertation and underpins the exploration of ways to improve the use of outdoor learning spaces. Findings from this research provide insight into the many benefits that outdoor learning spaces offer students. This includes building positive human-nature relationships, freedom from the constraints of traditional teaching pedagogies and increased health and wellbeing benefits for students, stimulation and engagement in learning and skills and knowledge acquisition. Challenges and constraints in utilising outdoor learning spaces are also revealed through the systematic review of literature and include a fear of nature exhibited by students and teachers, teachers’ lack of confidence and capability is using outdoor spaces for learning across learning areas, and a shortage of resources, leadership, administration support and professional learning for teachers that would support the effective use of outdoor learning spaces. The Discussion and conclusion draw together themes in the findings and highlight the positive relationship between the use of outdoor learning spaces and the effective shaping of adolescent student learning experiences.Item Open Access “Baggy Monsters” in the time of Trolls. How can the teaching of 19th Century literature in senior secondary school English be made more engaging?(2019) Lally, Hannah; School of EducationAs of 2019, English remains the only school subject Australian jurisdictions require students to study in order to graduate or achieve the Australian Tertiary Admissions Rank (Yiannakis 2014). Beyond providing literacy competencies, English from its outset has been “central to the curriculum as a principal means by which students explored their expressive, creative, imaginative and ethical selves, either through their own writing or through an encounter with literary texts” (Macintyre 2001). A lack of engagement in education is often posited as a primary reason for student drop-out, with failure to graduate being described as the most “severe and overt symptom of disengagement from school and learning” (Lehr et al. 2004, pg. 15). If students were to not engage with the compulsory senior secondary English, they are at risk of losing motivation and the subsequent learning and academic success (Gibbs and Poskitt 2010). There are two central reasons that underpin the importance of this research question. The first component identifies that 10.49 per cent of the literary texts on Australian senior secondary English prescribed and recommended text lists are nineteenth-century texts. The second component to this research question asserts the difficulties associated with studying nineteenth-century literature. With texts that are between 100 to 200 years old, archaic language, unfamiliar settings, and mature, complex themes beyond the life experiences of teenagers pose problems for young adult readers (Miller 2017). The lack of historical and contextual knowledge of the nineteenth century and its social concerns may prove challenging for students who are navigating texts with vocabulary and structure disparate to contemporary works. Therefore, if such a significant proportion of nineteenth-century texts remain on compulsory text lists and these present unique challenges to twenty-first century secondary students, then it is essential for teachers to be aware the most engaging ways to teach them. In this study’s systematic literature review, an overview of engaging pedagogies for teaching literature did emerge, with prevalent examples including digital formats and online content, recovering the context and background of the period, drawing direct links to students’ real worlds, using critical inquiry or studies of genre, or visual and dramatic tasks. The most significant finding was the emergence of pedagogical philosophies which were at the core of this array of engaging strategies. Whilst not always explicit, prevalent underlying factors included: the importance of student choice and student-centred learning, differentiation in response to multicultural classrooms, as well as the teacher’s passion for literature and creative adaptability for interpretations of texts. Hence, this literature review manifested into the hypothesis: that the pedagogies which are built on and infuse every task with student choice, student-centred learning, diversity, a teacher’s own passion for literature and adaptability to creative interpretations are the most engaging practices for students, and are not bound to a specific period or type of content studied. Rather, it is the principles of engaging teaching that will always increase student engagement with all class content.Item Open Access The Central Board of Education South Australia, 1852 - 1875(1981) Vick, Malcom J.; School of EducationThe development of education in South Australia between 1852 and 1875 was closely interwoven with the structure and dynamics of colonial society. Class, gender, religion and the demographic features of the colony shaped the patterns of social organization, culture and behaviour. They R 0 generated a wide range of 'social problems' which were defined differently by colonists according to their positions in the social structure. They also allowed differential access to the various institutional means by which those 'problems' could be dealt with, especially the state. The educational aspirations, options and choices of parents were constrained by their social backgrounds and the conditions under which they lived. Consequently, there was a wide diversity of educational practices in the colony. The leaders' of colonial society and of local communities believed that education could help secure the social order they desired by imparting morality and discipline to working class and small farmers' children. However, they believed that only schools characterized by trained teachers, the organization of pupils into classes, and a planned curriculum could fulfil that function efficiently. In 1851, colonial leaders used their dominance of the newly elected Legislative Council to pass an Education Act to support such schools. The strategy embodied in the Act reflected both their concern to restrict state expenditure in economically unproductive areas and their ideological commitment to the autonomy and responsibility of the family in education. It provided limited financial assistance to 'good' schools but left the initiative to establish and utilize schools in private hands. Control over the implementation of the Act was firmly entrenched in the hands of the leaders of the colony. The a administrative structure was located within the state. The government retained the power to establish and control the limits within which it operated, principally through its power to regulate funding and to appoint the members of the administrative Board. Within the limits set by governments, the Board enjoyed considerable autonomy and devised a range of policies consistent with the aims embodied in the Act. The implementation of these policies was the responsibility of the permanent officers of the civil service department of education. Once basic procedures were established these officers enjoyed substantial autonomy in managing the growing education system. This three tiered structure meant that the implementation of the Act according to the strategies formulated in 1851 was strongly resistant to pressures from either 'public opinion' or temporary-changes in government policies, such as those of the 1860 -1861 Reynolds government. The Board and its officers faced a large number of problems in implementing the Act. Financial limitations undermined key strategies for encouraging 'good' schools and transforming 'inferior' ones. Trained teachers, crucial to the'good' schools, sought clients from the secure, respectable sectors of the society. The working class and small farmers patronized untrained teachers, whose methods were more closely attuned to the rhythms and constraints of their lives. If the Board supported only trained teachers, therefore, it failed to provide for its intended clients, while if it supported schools amongst the poor, it found it difficult to enforce 'standards'. It devised a range of administrative solutions to these problems within the limits of the Act, but by the late 1860s it consistently argued that it needed more money and more powers. Social changes, evident from the late 1860s, generated new social problems, a shift in the balance of political power and a transformation of the dominant ideology. This new ideology focussed on the new problems, redefined old ones and indicated new strategies for dealing with both. In education, the promoters of the new ideology concentrated on the problem of unschooled urban 'street children' and the standards of many of the working class and-rural schools. They demanded-far greater control over the process of teaching, and compulsory attendance. In 1874 they radically reshaped the administrative structure and by the following year enjoyed sufficient political power to pass a new Education Act.Item Open Access Student Voice: Power, Democracy and Neoliberalism(2019) Tymukas, Benjamin Kostas; School of EducationThe past decade or so has seen an increase in literature that addresses the concept of student voice. Australia, the United Kingdom and the United States (US) have been particularly noticeable proponents of the concept. Within many ‘western’ democracies (including Australia), the existence of student voice is a mandatory element of education (the US being a notable exception). A core issue with the idea of student voice, is the breadth of activities that this can refer to. Because of this there is a lack of clarity around what student voice is and how it should be considered and implemented. Often the term is used in reference to student leadership or governance programs, such as Student Representative Councils (SRC). It can also refer to classroom ‘voice’ and democratic pedagogical practice. Despite the common presence of some form of student voice in schools, this paper found evidence that these programs are often poorly implemented. The potential benefits are poorly understood and are often not reflected in the data used for quantifying school, or student, performance. This research aimed to answer the question: How can we better conceptualise student voice? The aims were to create an understanding of literature addressing student voice, and the positive and negative effects of ‘voice’ that this research supported. Through this, the aim was then to understand the barriers that exist that prevent student voice from reaching its potential, and how these can be addressed. The final aim was to apply the understanding garnered to a school case study. The case study was a flagship student voice program, the Youth Action Team (YAT), which was being operated by the Northern Adelaide Suburbs State Secondary School Alliance NASSSA. The YAT was a student voice program, operating across the 11 member schools of NASSSA, promoting interschool relationships and community engagement. This paper uses a literature review as data to inform analysis. It explores the way educators and governing bodies conceptualise voice, and questions how current practice can be adapted to provide more democratic, inclusive and responsive education. It finds that there are structural and governance issues that lead to a tendency for student voice programs to lack the support and understanding for success. Bacchi’s ‘What is the Problem Represented to Be’ method is used for a discourse analysis of literature addressing the issue of student voice. The research finds evidence indicating power and economic factors that are suspected barriers to the realisation of democratic potential in the classroom and in school governance. The value of student voice is obscured by dominant economic narratives, and the power structures that are produced by them.Item Open Access Roots and Shoots: Assisting young people to envision and act upon sustainable futures(2019) Kinsey-West, Victoria Louise; School of EducationShort-term thinking is a dominant Western worldview and is reflected in many educational practices, many of which concentrate on the assessment of certain kinds of knowledges. Despite the assumption that education prepares students for their future, it often lacks a long-term vision of what that future may be. Furthermore, conventional education has overlooked fundamental questions of sustainability facing future generations. The future cannot be predicted with certainty; however, it can be said that the current and looming ecological crises will predicate a troubling uncertain future for all human and non-human beings. In recognising that the conventional education system has not made a great deal of contribution to sustainability, this study examines an alternative youth education program that is used within, and alongside, conventional curricular programs. Roots and Shoots (R&S) is an environmental and humanitarian youth education program of the Jane Goodall Institute, which is present in almost 100 countries worldwide. The program encourages young people to take action to make the world a better place for animals, people and the environment, underpinned by the value of holistic compassion. However, due to its philosophical and global approach, it can be dismissed as lacking structure and value. This is unfortunate since its flexible structure enables it to be adapted across the globe in different social and cultural contexts, and it offers a means to enable youth to envision and act upon a sustainable future. However, traditional approaches to education often require numerically measurable outcomes, which can perpetuate short-term visions. The R&S aim to develop compassionate youth is problematic in this sense. With this in mind, this study sought to identify a foundational theoretical approach that may assist the program’s development and future direction. The link between young people’s abilities to envision alternative, sustainable futures and their agency to act upon creating them can be connected using futures studies. However, futures studies lacks a precise analytical tool. This study has adapted futures theories and methods to develop a tool, consisting of four core concepts. These I argue have the capacity to orient a futures perspective for youth. Due to the limited scope of this study the R&S Formula Toolkit was chosen to orient the development of a futures perspective for the program. The R&S program enables members to envision a positive long-term future with a narrative where youth act as compassionate leaders, and make decisions based on holistic compassion. When demonstrated equally towards animals, people and the environment, holistic compassion exemplifies an interrelational and integral approach, which is required for sustainable futures for all. R&S encourages agency and action through engaging youth in local projects that provide relevance to their lives and have an impact. Youth feel more optimistic about global futures when their local projects are viewed under the global umbrella of R&S, and the narrative of young people bringing about change across the globe. I argue that it is this narrative, rather than the actions undertaken as part of R&S, that enables youth to envision and act upon sustainable futures.Item Open Access Constructing a Gender Equity Framework of ‘Best Fit’ for a Private Coeducational School in Adelaide(2019) Johnson, Patrick Darby; School of EducationThe construction of gender identity, as well as culturally acceptable expressions of that identity, can often conflict with the principles of education. Adolescents, in this particularly impressionable period, are forced to choose between what is expected of them as students, and what is expected of them as gendered individuals. Masculinity, for instance, demands that boys prioritise activity over passivity, and participate in the subordination of other, divergent forms of masculinity to ensure their own status as male. As such, boys have garnered a harmful reputation for being more disruptive than their gender counterparts, a perception that problematises boys. Female students are similarly affected by traditional gender norms. Acceptable femininity is often synonymised with subservience, meekness, and passivity. This perception creates a culture that oppresses girls, as they are forced, through social pressures, to adhere to this unfair expectation. However, how society views adolescents with regard to gender is generally the antithesis of expectations around schooling. For instance, through social and familial pressure, students are encouraged to academically excel. Yet, this contradicts many accepted notions of gender. Masculinity, in some forms, idolises apathy, or getting by with the least expended effort. Femininity is similar, in that girls must emphasise sociality over academic achievement. After all, intellect is traditionally associated with masculinity, and any girl that communicates behaviours that lay in the realm of manhood risks ridicule, bullying and harassment from her peers. Boys express tantamount degrees of disdain for males who transgress the threshold between masculinity and femininity, as maintaining heteronormativity can be essential to survival for students of all genders. In this, gender is often in conflict with educative processes. Schools, therefore, require systems that can identify and mitigate potentially harmful gender constructive processes among students. Gender equity frameworks, whole-school approaches that provide mechanisms for achieving equitable outcomes for students of all genders, remain an underutilised resource within educational institutions. Although, while examples of these frameworks exist, however sparse, they are often unsuited for an individual institution. This is because many of them do not consider the specific context and ethos of the school. This study created a gender equity framework for a particular school in Adelaide. Using the ‘best fit’ method, a framework was constructed through thematic synthesis of previously constructed equity frameworks, as well as through examination of relevant literature. The framework was developed with objectives in mind that emphasise gender issues within Australian education. These included subject gender disparity, as there is a historical trend of girls enrolling in the Humanities, and boys enrolling with Mathematics and Science subjects. Facilitating academic achievement was another objective, as gender can negatively impact the success of students. Student safety was also emphasised, with particular regard for how gender dynamics among students can cultivate bullying or exclusion, especially for gay or transgender students. The final objective recommended the implementation of framework assessment mechanisms, as evaluating the effectiveness of the framework is essential for the goals of gender equity.Item Open Access Exploring learning and employability skills and their relationship with the Australian Curriculum, SACE and the General Capabilities(2019) Hanley, Jacob Jon; School of EducationWork performance and success in the twenty-first century is broadly dictated by an individual’s learner and employability skills. These are skills that are not discipline specific, but relate to a wide range of contexts to allow an individual to be successful in contemporary society. These skills are now also becoming part of the accepted standards of performance for students. However, if students are to meet these standards of performance they must first be developed and promoted in the classroom. There is a demonstrated consensus in the literature that classroom activities and student focus will always be centered on what is assessed; if there is a disconnection between the standards for assessment and the objectives of the curriculum, then the curriculum objectives will not be represented in the tasks that students are presented. Despite this, there is limited research that explores how these twenty-first century skills are incorporated into Australian curricula and assessed in the classroom. The Employability Skills specified in the Core Skills for Work (CSfW) Developmental Framework are echoed in the Australian Curriculum and the South Australian Certificate of Education (SACE) Curriculum with the inclusion of the General Capabilities. Each of these General Capabilities resonate the skills that are acknowledged globally as being key to developing proficient learners and successful contributors to society. This thesis explores the alignment between Employability Skills specified by the CSfW Developmental Framework, Curriculum Objectives and student assessments for SACE Stage 1 Mathematics through a qualitative analysis of the curriculum and the provided school-based assessment documents. The initial analysis evaluated the alignment between the General Capabilities and the SACE Performance Standards for Stage 1 Mathematics. The results of the thematic analysis of the two document sets showed that the SACE Performance Standards omitted the majority of the General Capability Key Idea Elements, specifically for the ICT Capability, Personal and Social Capability, Ethical Understanding, and Intercultural Understanding. This result confirmed that the current SACE Performance Standards are only able to measure student performance against the Numeracy, Literacy, and Critical and Creative Thinking Capabilities, highlighting a disconnection between the curriculum objectives and student assessment. In addition to the review of the SACE Performance Standards, the study also analysed examples of Stage 1 Mathematics school-based assessments to explore any intrinsic links to the General Capabilities. These assessment documents were provided by a co-educational secondary school located in Adelaide, South Australia. The results of this analysis showed a similar alignment to the General Capabilities as what was identified in the analysis of the SACE Performance Standards. Only the Numeracy, Literacy, and Critical and Creative Thinking Capabilities were challenged and measured by the school-based assessments; the remaining four capabilities were all omitted from the assessment tasks. This result highlighted that the Performance Standards stipulated by the SACE Subject Outline for Stage 1 Mathematics had an ongoing effect on the way that school-based assessments were developed and the skills that were measured. The outcomes of this study demonstrate the need for standards of performance, curriculum objectives and student assessment to be aligned. The alignment of these three elements of education will help ensure that employability and learner skills for the twenty-first century are developed and measured in South Australian classrooms. In addition to this, the review of the SACE Subject Outline suggested that the current SACE Curriculum framework prevented schools the freedom to integrate courses and better represent the General Capabilities in classroom activities and assessments. A reform of this framework could open the potential for the implementation of a highly contextualised curriculum, allowing students to apply their knowledge to applications that they are expected to face outside of the classroom.Item Open Access ‘What are you doing and how are you going to achieve it?’: Shifting Focus to Skill Development in Year 11 Chemistry(2019) Daughtry, Jonathan; School of EducationIn the 21st Century, higher order skills and capabilities are the most desirable qualities to industry, supplanting content knowledge as the most critical quality. Furthermore, teachers are always looking at ways to increase student engagement. The Models of Engaged Learning and Teaching (MELT) framework was developed by Willison & O’Regan in order to address these issues (2007; 2018). MELT has been shown to increase student engagement and explicitly develop the skills students required for higher education and employment in industry (McGowan, 2018; Willison, 2018; Willison & O’Regan, 2007). In this study, MELT was implemented in a secondary school in suburban, Adelaide, South Australia. Employing the participant observer methodology, a pre-service teacher undertaking the Master of Teaching program at the University of Adelaide, attended seven, year 11 chemistry lessons and produced a series of vignettes that described student interactions. These were then thematically analysed in order to determine the nature and extent of student demonstrated engagement with and about the MELT framework, and the nature of student classroom interaction with relation to MELT facets and autonomy when MELT is not used explicitly. Furthermore, the study analysed the data in relation to the concept of metacognition, flow and visible thinking routines (Csikszentmihalyi, 1991; Flavell, 1979; Ritchhart & Perkins, 2008). The study illustrated that each of the MELT facets was needed by year 11 secondary school students in the course of each chemistry lesson, and concluded that MELT may support skill development in this context. Furthermore, the study asserts that student engagement and learning may be improved if students and teachers focus on skill development rather than results. Finally, the study recommends that further research be undertaken in relation to MELT’s potential in secondary schools, and suggests that MELT include more emphasis on the affective domain.Item Open Access Minimising Extraneous Cognitive Load in Immersive Virtual Environments: Evaluating an Immersive Virtual Reality Educational Platform Against the Principles of Cognitive Load Theory(2019) Rogers, Jock Alexander McDonald; School of EducationMany consider STEM skills to be increasingly important for the future workplace. However, Australian enrolments in senior secondary STEM subjects declined through the 90s and early 2000s, especially in science subjects. The number of enrolments plateaued and has changed little since. One reasons behind this is that students tend to avoid and dropout of STEM subjects. This is partly because STEM education across Australia is not fostering enough interest in students, and a lack of engagement and enjoyment in the classroom. STEM Classrooms need to be made more interesting, engaging and enjoyable, but in a way that does not harm learning. Immersive Virtual Reality (IVR) is uniquely positioned for this as it can create novel, authentic, immersive, interactive and emotional experiences. These experiences immerse users within the virtual environment (VE), establishing a sense of presence or ‘being there’. Presence and authenticity create unmediated and engaging experiences, of the type recommended by most modern learning theories. However, IVR comes with many limitations, of which cost is the most notable. Furthermore, there are significant gaps in the literature describing and demonstrating the relation between the countless factors that define IVR, and learning outcomes. So far studies have demonstrated that IVR is often not superior, and sometimes inferior, to traditional methods with respect to cognitive learning outcomes. A problem which is exacerbated by the fact that few of the many IVR devices and software developed are grounded in solid pedagogy. Early research has indicated why this might be the case, the answer might come from Cognitive Load Theory (CLT). CLT is a learning theory especially suited for describing the cognitive loads associated with learning tasks and the methods to manage and reduce it. IVR is often informationally dense, requiring that students navigate a full 360˚, 3D virtual environment whilst being dazzled by many sources of visual and sometimes audial information. CLT suggests that cognitive load comes in two forms. One of these, extraneous load, encompasses content that is irrelevant to learning that either distracts students, or forces them to process it alongside task-relevant information. IVR, it is suggested, tends to create large extraneous loads, which is possibly the source of its mediocre performance in producing cognitive learning outcomes. The goal of this study was to use the principles of CLT to evaluate an educational IVR platform with regards to minimising extraneous load. This platform could support large numbers of users simultaneously within shared or separate VEs whilst an instructor, using a separate non-IVR device, selected, controlled and manipulate the content. After a review of the literature, two questions would define the evaluation: Q1) How does the educational IVR platform compare to the recommendations of CLT regarding the reduction of extraneous load in the presentation of content? Q2) Where & how could the educational IVR platform be changed to better meet the recommendations? The evaluation was conducted by directly using the platform, during which the platform’s content was qualitatively observed and its characteristics explored. These observations were conducted using a coding framework consisting of criteria that was synthesised from the principles of CLT and the characteristics, capabilities and limitations of the platform initially identified. The observations were analysed and discussed, in these discussions content design methods based off the criteria were suggested. More importantly, the interaction between the defining characteristics of the platform and the criteria was determined, from which the primary evaluation and recommendations were made. The evaluation concluded that the platform was well suited for minimising extraneous load for several reasons (Q1). Some simple recommendations were made, primarily the addition of more tools for the instructor to use to manipulate running content (Q2). By attempting to evaluate an ICT technology, the research aimed to guide or assist future evaluations. However, due to limitations in the literature and research method, assumptions had to be made. The limitations that necessitated these assumptions provided a basis for suggested research directions.Item Open Access Relative Age Effects of South Australian Senior Secondary School Students(2018) Della Pietra, Jordan; School of EducationAchievement and attainment in Secondary school is often referred to as individual academic success rather than sporting or non-academic achievement. Factors that have influence on student success are often discussed between education stakeholders. Academic achievement and attainment of Senior Secondary students are known to contribute to the increased probability of future success of these students. Relative Age Effects, the influence of student age on their academic achievements, is a contemporary factor currently being researched on an international scale. Within South Australia the recognised merit of achievement for Year 12 students is the South Australian Certificate of Education (SACE). This generally involves a two-stage process, where students can begin to attain ‘credits’ in a Year 10 Stage 1 subject, which contributes to the 200-credit requirement for attaining the SACE. Through analysing Relative Age Effects of student in the most common subjects (Research Project, Mathematics Applications, English Communications and Biology) for 2014 (N = 13,869), 2015 (N = 15,050) and 2016 (N = 15,101) it is possible to see if age influences South Australian students’ achievement. Other influential factors to academic achievement included gender (Male or Female) and school location (Metropolitan or Country). In 2014 the Research Project (p <0.01), Mathematics (p <0.01) and English (p <0.01) subjects resulted in statistically significant age effects, where students classified as ‘Young’ outperformed their ‘Old’ counterparts. In 2015 only two of the four subjects, the Research Project (p <0.01) and Biology (p <0.01) showed significant statistical difference between age grouped students, where, similar to 2014, the Young students outperformed the Old. Both the Research Project (p <0.01) and Mathematics (p <0.01) subjects for 2016 exhibited significant statistical difference, following the same trend as the previous years with Old students performing worse than Young students. Differences of mean achieved scores by students within these cohorts are therefore likely to be influenced by other factors such as socioeconomic status, immigration status of students and families, or teacher influence. Limitations of this study include the lack of detailed information about students, such as their socio-economic status or their work commitments are discussed within the paper. The findings offer insights into the currently limited knowledge about Relative Age Effects of students within South Australian Secondary schools.