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Item Open Access Reconstruction of a rollover crash for thoracic injury etiology investigation(MDPI, 2017) Tan, T.; Mongiardini, M.; Grzebieta, R.; Mattos, G.The cause of serious and fatal thoracic injuries in passenger vehicle rollover crashes is currently not well understood. Previous research on thoracic injuries resulting from rollover crashes have focused primarily on statistical analysis of crash data. This study seeks to develop a better understanding of where in the rollover sequence thoracic injuries may occur. To do this, a real-world passenger vehicle rollover crash where the driver sustained serious bilateral thoracic injuries was reconstructed. Multi-body analysis was used to determine the vehicle’s pre-trip trajectory and to obtain the vehicle’s position and kinematics at the point of trip. This information was then used to prescribe the motion of the vehicle in a finite element analysis. A finite element model of the EuroSID-2re anthropomorphic test device was placed in the driver’s seat. Four simulations, each with the anthropomorphic test device positioned in different postures, were performed. Rib deflection, spinal acceleration, and thoracic impact velocity were obtained from the anthropomorphic test device and compared to existing thoracic injury assessment reference values. From the analysis, lateral thoracic impact velocity indicates that a serious thoracic injury is likely to have occurred when the driver impacted the centre console during the vehicle’s fourth quarter-turn.Item Metadata only What are Australian drivers doing behind the wheel? An overview of secondary task data from the Australian Naturalistic Driving Study(Journal of the Australasian College of Road Safety, 2019) Young, K.L.; Osborne, R.; Koppel, S.; Charlton, J.L.; Grzebieta, R.; Williamson, A.; Haworth, N.; Woolley, J.; Senserrick, T.Using data from the Australian Naturalistic Driving Study (ANDS), this study examined patterns of secondary task engagement (e.g., mobile phone use, manipulating centre stack controls) during everyday driving trips to determine the type and duration of secondary task engaged in. Safety-related incidents associated with secondary task engagement were also examined. Results revealed that driver engagement in secondary tasks was frequent, with drivers engaging in one or more secondary tasks every 96 seconds, on average. However, drivers were more likely to initiate engagement in secondary tasks when the vehicle was stationary, suggesting that drivers do self-regulate the timing of task engagement to a certain degree. There was also evidence that drivers modified their engagement in a way suggestive of limiting their exposure to risk by engaging in some secondary tasks for shorter periods when the vehicle was moving compared to when it was stationary. Despite this, almost six percent of secondary tasks events were associated with a safety-related incident. The findings will be useful in targeting distraction countermeasures and policies and determining the effectiveness of these in managing driver distraction.Item Metadata only The contribution of various levels of speeding to fatal and serious road trauma(Centre for Automotive Safety Research, 2021) Doecke, S.; Elsegood, M.; Ponte, G.; Transport Accident Commission (TAC)The purpose of this study was to examine the contribution of the different levels of speeding to road trauma by using the speed data derived from the Event Data Recorders (EDRs) of crashed vehicles and recently developed risk curves that relate absolute risk of serious and fatal injury to impact speed. The analysis used 283 ‘bullet’ vehicles from the CASR-EDR database, of which 74 were speeding. Weightings were applied to minimise sampling bias. A model was applied to the EDR data to determine the reduction in impact speed had the speeding vehicles been travelling at the speed limit. The effect of the reduced impacts speed on lowering the probability of fatal and serious injuries (FSIs) was calculated using injury risk curves. Finally, the contribution of speeding to serious and fatal road trauma was estimated by comparing the sum of the probabilities of an FSI with the original travel speeds to the sum of the probabilities of FSI when speeding was eliminated. Speeding contributes to 18% of fatal and serious road trauma. That is, if speeding were eliminated completely, FSIs would be expected to be reduced by 18%. The results suggest that low level speeding is not benign and should remain the focus of various road safety interventions, along with all levels of speeding.Item Metadata only An investigation of cyclist passing distances in the Australian Capital Territory(Elsevier, 2021) MacKenzie, J.R.R.; Dutschke, J.K.; Ponte, G.In Australia, cycling hospitalisations are increasing and the cycling participation rate is stagnating. In an effort to improve cyclist safety, many Australian jurisdictions have mandated a minimum passing distance that vehicles much provide when overtaking a cyclist on a public road, including the Australian Capital Territory (ACT). However, it is not currently clear how vehicle-cyclist passing distances are affected by various parameters such as the road environment, the vehicles involved, or the speed limit. This naturalistic bicycle riding study examined data from passing distance measurement devices that were installed on the bicycles of volunteer cyclists who ride in the ACT, to explore how passing distances and compliance with the minimum passing distance were affected by several parameters. Over a four-week period, 23 volunteer cyclist participants undertook 465 journeys and travelled 6531 km over a total period of 271 h. There were 10,959 passing events identified on roads zoned greater than 60 km/h (high speed roads) of which 1349 (12.3 %) were non-compliant. On roads zoned 60 km/h or less (low speed roads) there were 5517 passing events of which 153 (2.8 %) were non-compliant. Regression analyses showed that differences in passing distance and non-compliance with the minimum passing distance were associated with road classification, bike lane presence, and speed limit. The results were mixed but, in general, passing distances were greater on roads with a lower (hierarchy) classification and on motorways as well as on roads with higher speed limits. An exception to this was roads with a speed limit of 50 km/h where passing distances were closer in comparison to roads with a speed limit of 60 km/h. Bike lanes were generally associated with an increase in passing distance except on ‘trunk’ classified roads, where a bike lane resulted in closer passing events. This suggests that on trunk roads, which are assumed to carry large amounts of traffic, bike lanes may be insufficient to offer protection to cyclists and additional measures may be required.Item Metadata only What contextual and demographic factors predict drivers’ decision to engage in secondary tasks?(Institution of Engineering and Technology, 2019) Young, K.L.; Osborne, R.; Koppel, S.; Charlton, J.L.; Grzebieta, R.; Williamson, A.; Haworth, N.; Woolley, J.; Senserrick, T.This study used data from the Australian Naturalistic Driving Study to study driver engagement in secondary tasks during every day driving and examine the role that various driver characteristics and driving context variables play in influencing the initiation of secondary tasks. Video from 186 randomly selected trips were viewed to identify a range of secondary tasks and to classify contextual variables at the point of task initiation (e.g. vehicle motion, weather, and light conditions). Results revealed that secondary task engagement when driving is highly prevalent, with drivers spending ~45% of their driving time engaging in potentially distracting tasks. The results also showed that drivers make a number of strategic decisions regarding when to engage, such as waiting until the vehicle is stationary; however, they do not appear to consider some contextual factors that may impact risks, such as weather and light conditions. The findings will be useful in targeting distraction countermeasures and policies and determining the effectiveness of these in reducing driver distraction.Item Metadata only Driver distraction and inattention in fatal and injury crashes: findings from in-depth road crash data(Taylor & Francis, 2019) Wundersitz, L.N.Objective: This study investigated the contribution of driver distraction and inattention within fatal and injury crashes using recent in-depth road crash investigation data. To assist in developing system-based solutions, this study also examined the wider context in which inattention-related crashes occurred and the characteristics of inattentive drivers. Methods: The sample included in-depth crash data from 186 fatal and injury crashes in South Australia investigated from 2014 to 2018. Crash case notes were reviewed to determine whether there was evidence that attentional failures contributed to the crash. Using an adapted taxonomy of inattention, 5 subtypes of driver inattention were defined: Misprioritized attention, neglected attention, cursory attention, diverted attention (distraction), and unspecified inattention. The characteristics of inattention crashes were also compared with those for non-inattention-related crashes. Results: Of the 160 crashes for which there was sufficient information to determine whether inattention was a factor, 31.3% showed evidence of driver inattention contributing to the crash. The most common subtypes of inattention were distraction (13.8% of all crashes) and driver misprioritized attention (8.1%). The distraction-related crashes included a variety of different distractions, the majority of which were not technology based (e.g., passenger interaction, searching for/adjusting objects, emotional stress, other road users), with those located in-vehicle the most prevalent. Distraction from mobile phone use was identified in 2.5% of all crashes. The majority of distractions were cognitive (64%) and voluntary (77%) in nature. Inattention crashes were most likely to involve right turn/angle or rear-end crash types and occur at intersections, in metropolitan areas, and in lower speed zones. Conclusions: The findings established that almost a third of fatal and injury crashes involved driver inattention and distraction and many of these could have been prevented. System-wide solutions that could mitigate or prevent distraction crashes include intervening vehicle safety technologies, infrastructure solutions to promote a forgiving road environment, blocking capabilities within technologies to prevent communications while driving, and interventions communicating the risks associated with inattention. Of significance, this study also demonstrated the importance of in-depth data for understanding the contribution of distraction and inattention errors in crash causation.Item Metadata only Modelling a quad-bike rollover mechanism when traversing an asymmetric bump(Taylor & Francis, 2019) Hicks, D.; Mongiardini, M.; Grzebieta, R.; Rechnitzer, G.; Simmons, K.Experimental testing of a quad bike traversing a bump placed in-line with one of the vehicle’s wheel tracks showed that a passive rider could be displaced across the quad-bike seat resulting in the vehicle’s sudden unintentional steering. It was hypothesised that this ‘bump’ mechanism could result in a rollover. To determine whether such a bump mechanism can precipitate a rollover and under what conditions it occurs, an earlier developed quad bike FE model combined with a seated Anthropomorphic Test Device FE model was validated against experimental tests of the quad bike traversing a semi-cylindrical bump. A sensitivity analysis was then carried out varying the initial conditions of ground friction and approach angle on flat terrain. The FE simulations show that the bump mechanism, for a particular set of friction values and approach angle, resulted in a rollover. The identified bump-induced rollover mechanism could help explain some of the rollover-associated quad bike crashes on Australian farms where it was known that a fatality occurred as a result of rollover which happened due to traversing a bump from Coronial investigations carried out by the authors.Item Metadata only The relationship between Motorcycle Rider Behaviour Questionnaire scores and crashes for riders in Australia(Elsevier, 2017) Stephens, A.N.; Brown, J.; de Rome, L.; Baldock, M.R.J.; Fernandes, R.; Fitzharris, M.Motorcycle riders are over-represented in road fatalities in Australia. While riders represent 18% of the road users killed each year, motorcycle registrations constitute only 4.5% of the registered vehicle fleet. The Motorcycle Rider Behaviour Questionnaire (MRBQ) was developed with a view toward understanding behaviours likely to be associated with crash risk. These include behaviours that are either intentional (such as violations of road and speed regulations and stunts) or unintentional (such as errors relating to traffic or control of the motorcycle), as well as protective behaviours related to use of safety equipment. The dual aims of the current study were, first, to determine the appropriate structure of a modified version of the MRBQ for use in a representative sample of riders in Australia and, second, to understand which MRBQ factors are associated with crash involvement. A stratified sampling procedure was undertaken to ensure the socio-economic status of local government area, age and gender of the sample was representative of the broader population of riders in New South Wales, Australia. The sample consisted of 470 riders (males=89%). Exploratory factor analysis revealed a 29-item, five factor structure was suitable on the Australian data encompassing traffic errors, speed violations, protective gear, control errors and stunts. Overall, riders reported relatively safe behaviours, with frequent use of protective gear and infrequent aberrant behaviours. However, even though infrequent, violations of speed and errors related to control of the motorcycle increased the odds of near-crash involvement, whilst stunt behaviours were associated with increased odds of crash involvement. Interventions and countermeasures need to target these specific behaviours.Item Metadata only Near-miss crashes and other predictors of motorcycle crashes: findings from a population-based survey(Taylor & Francis, 2018) de Rome, L.; Brown, J.; Baldock, M.; Fitzharris, M.OBJECTIVE:Crash and injury surveillance studies have identified a range of rider-related factors, including age, sex, licensure, training and experience, as being associated with motorcycle crash risk. The aim of this study was to establish whether these previously identified factors were associated with crash involvement in an Australian-based population. METHODS:Data obtained from motorcyclists recruited from road authority licensing offices in a population-based survey design were analyzed. In addition to descriptive analysis, survey logistic regression was used to examine predictors of self-reported motorcycle crashes. A statewide population prevalence study of motorcyclists in New South Wales, Australia, was conducted using a multistage stratified random sampling plan. Participants (n = 503) represented 47% of eligible riders invited to participate. The distribution of responses was weighted to represent the population based on motorcycle registrations as a proxy for active motorcyclists, adjusted for age, sex, and variations in sample size and population density between survey sites. RESULTS:This analysis investigated factors associated with having crashed in the past 12 months. The key predictors of increased crash risk included frequent near-crash experiences (6-10) in the past year (adjusted odds ratio [ORadj] = 5.3; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.3-21.8), having 4 or more riding demerit points (ORadj = 4.1; 95% CI, 1.1-14.7), and motorcycle type and riding purpose. Sports (ORadj = 2.8; 95% CI, 1.1-7.3) and commuter motorcycles (ORadj = 4.0; 95% CI, 1.1-15.3) were associated with higher odds of crashes compared to cruiser/touring motorcycles. Those whose purpose for riding frequently involved commuting, high-speed roads, or motorcycle sports had higher odds of being involved in a crash compared to riders who rarely took part in such activities. Rider age, license type, and time holding a motorcycle license were not predictive of crash involvement when other factors were taken into account. CONCLUSIONS:These findings provide important population-level information and insights about risk exposure for motorcyclists. Taking a more tailored approach to data collection meant that factors associated with crash involvement were identified that are not commonly observed in studies relying on administrative data. In particular, the study highlights the importance of near-crash experiences as warnings to riders and the need to use such experiences as learning opportunities to improve their riding style and safety.Item Metadata only Average and standard deviation of remaining lifetime(Institute of Actuaries of Australia, 2017) Hutchinson, T.At older ages, the average and the standard deviation of remaining lifetime (ARL and SRL) are both less than at younger ages. us ARL and SRL change together. A linear relationship of slope 1 between the reciprocals of ARL and SRL has previously been found. e present paper reports similar relationships when considering different countries, years, and sexes. It is suggested that age and sex of person, their country, and the year all act via the same unobserved variable, that might be called effective age.Item Metadata only Assessing the congruence of worker and workplace using the proximities of their RIASEC types(Australian Council for Educational Research, 2014) Hutchinson, T.Vocational interest inventories are often designed, scored and interpreted in accordance with the six Holland types (R, I, A, S, E and C) and their hexagonal arrangement. A three-letter code then identifies the three types on which the person scored most highly. The congruence between a person and their environment (e.g. workplace or field of study) may affect their satisfaction and performance, and how to define congruence is a question of long standing. The method proposed here is based on (a) the presence and position of each of the six Holland types in the two three-letter codes being compared (or their absence from the codes) and (b) proximities of all pairs of types, reflecting the hexagonal arrangement of the types. There is discussion of whether the hexagonal arrangement ought to be used in calculating congruence, but a definite answer is not yet clear.Item Metadata only A method of constructing models of reaction to an imminent road crash(Gale Group, 2016) Hutchinson, T.A model for emergency reaction of a vehicle (or its driver) to an obstacle ahead helps us to understand, predict, and calculate. This paper suggests how alternative models can be constructed. the basis is specification of (1) a small number of states of the vehicle (e.g., normal driving, braking, stationary), (2) rules for transitioning between states, and (3) a dependent variable (e.g., impact speed). The rules will include one or more parameters that are characteristic of the vehicle (or driver), and which need to be estimated by testing. The models generated are intended for application in, for example, interpreting the results of testing a vehicle equipped with an AEB (autonomous emergency braking) system--in particular, in inferring what would happen in conditions (e.g., challenge distances and travelling speeds) that are not directly tested.Item Metadata only Computer modelling of vehicle rollover crash tests conducted with the UNSW Jordan Rollover System(Taylor & Francis, 2016) Mongiardini, M.; Grzebieta, R.; Mattos, G.; Bambach, M.Vehicle rollovers are one of the least forgiving crash modes with one of the highest occupant fatality and serious-injury rates. A detailed understanding of the mechanisms associated to injuries resulting from vehicle rollovers is essential for the development of effective occupant-protection countermeasures during a rollover. Crash testing devices such as the Jordan Rollover System (JRS) recently have been used for investigating vehicle rollovers within a testing environment. Computer simulations of such rollover crash tests would provide a valuable support by allowing to greatly reduce the number of tests otherwise necessary for identifying the most critical test conditions as well as conducting comprehensive parametric studies. This paper describes a modelling effort to simulate vehicle rollover crash testing conducted with the University of New South Wales (UNSW) JRS, which is an improved version of the original JRS. A detailed finite element (FE) model of the UNSW JRS was coupled with FE models of both a small passenger car and a sport utility vehicle. Relevant physical phenomena that have to be modelled for successfully simulating such complex testing were initially identified. Both modelled configurations were validated against experimental rollover tests performed with the corresponding vehicle and proved to be capable of replicating the actual vehicle dynamics and deformations. Such developed FE model will be a useful tool for detailed investigations of vehicle rollover crash tests conducted with the UNSW JRS.Item Metadata only A robust estimation of the effects of motorcycle autonomous emergency braking (MAEB) based on in-depth crashes in Australia(Taylor & Francis, 2016) Savino, G.; Mackenzie, J.; Allen, T.; Baldock, M.; Brown, J.; Fitzharris, M.Autonomous emergency braking (AEB) is a safety system that detects imminent forward collisions and reacts by slowing down the host vehicle without any action from the driver. AEB effectiveness in avoiding and mitigating real-world crashes has recently been demonstrated. Research suggests that a translation of AEB to powered 2-wheelers could also be beneficial. Previous studies have estimated the effects of a motorcycle AEB system (MAEB) via computer simulations. Though effects of MAEB were computed for motorcycle crashes derived from in-depth crash investigation, there may be some inaccuracies due to limitations of postcrash investigation (e.g., inaccuracies in preimpact velocity of the motorcycle). Furthermore, ideal MAEB technology was assumed, which may lead to overestimation of the benefits. This study sought to evaluate the sensitivity of the simulations to variations in reconstructed crash cases and the capacity of the MAEB system in order to provide a more robust estimation of MAEB effects.First, a comprehensive classification of accidents was used to identify scenarios in which MAEB was likely to apply, and representative crash cases from those available for this study were populated for each crash scenario. Second, 100 variant cases were generated by randomly varying a set of simulation parameters with given normal distributions around the baseline values. Variants reflected uncertainties in the original data. Third, the effects of MAEB were estimated in terms of the difference in the impact speed of the host motorcycle with and without the system via computer simulations of each variant case. Simulations were repeated assuming both an idealized and a realistic MAEB system. For each crash case, the results in the baseline case and in the variants were compared. A total of 36 crash cases representing 11 common crash scenarios were selected from 3 Australian in-depth data sets: 12 cases from New South Wales, 13 cases from Victoria, and 11 cases from South Australia.The reduction in impact speed elicited by MAEB in the baseline cases ranged from 2.8 to 10.0 km/h. The baseline cases over- or underestimated the mean impact speed reduction of the variant cases by up to 20%. Constraints imposed by simulating more realistic capabilities for an MAEB system produced a decrease in the estimated impact speed reduction of up to 14% (mean 5%) compared to an idealized system.The small difference between the baseline and variant case results demonstrates that the potential effects of MAEB computed from the cases described in in-depth crash reports are typically a good approximation, despite limitations of postcrash investigation. Furthermore, given that MAEB intervenes very close to the point of impact, limitations of the currently available technologies were not found to have a dramatic influence on the effects of the system.Item Metadata only An estimate of the future road safety benefits of autonomous emergency braking and vehicle-to-vehicle communication technologies(Australasian College of Road Safety, 2017) Dutschke, J.; Searson, D.; Ponte, G.; Hutchinson, T.; Anderson, R.; Lydon, M.; Australasian Road Safety Conference (ARSC) (6 Sep 2016 - 8 Sep 2016 : Canberra, ACT)The aim of this study was to examine the benefits of hastening the introduction of new passenger vehicle technologies on future reductions in fatalities and serious injuries on Australian roads. This was done specifically for Autonomous Emergency Braking (AEB) and Vehicle-to-Vehicle (V2V) communications, which represent the two most promising technologies in the short-term and medium-term future. The results demonstrate that a delay in introduction, or a slower rate of introduction, can have a substantial effect on how long it takes for the safety benefits to be realised in the greater vehicle fleet.Item Open Access Energy attenuation performance of impact protection worn by motorcyclists in real-world crashes(Taylor & Francis, 2017) Albanese, B.; Gibson, T.; Whyte, T.; Meredith, L.; Savino, G.; de Rome, L.; Baldock, M.; Fitzharris, M.; Brown, J.Objective: Laboratory studies have demonstrated that impact protectors (IP) used in motorcycle clothing can reduce fracture severities. While crash studies have reported IP are associated with reduced likelihood of soft tissue injury, there is little evidence of their effectiveness in reducing fracture likelihood. This discrepancy might be related to IP quality. There are mandatory requirements for IP supplied with protective clothing in Europe, but not elsewhere. This study examines the energy attenuation performance of IP used by Australian riders. Methods: IP were harvested from clothing worn by crashed riders admitted to hospital. The IP were examined and energy attenuation properties were determined using EN 1621-1 test procedures. Impact injury was identified from medical records and defined as fractures, dislocations, and avulsions that occurred following impact to the rider's shoulders, elbows, hips, and/or knees. Fisher's exact test was used to examine the relationship between meeting the EN 1621-1 energy attenuation requirements and impact injury. The association between the average and maximum transmitted force, and impact injury was examined using generalized estimating equations. Motorcycle riders were recruited as part of an in-depth crash study through three hospitals in New South Wales, Australia, between 2012 and 2014. Riders were interviewed, and engineers conducted site, vehicle, and clothing inspections. Clothing was collected, or identical garments were purchased. Results: Clothing was inspected for 62 riders. Of these, 19 wore clothing incorporating 76 IP. Twenty-six of these were impacted in the crash event. Almost all impacted IP (96%) were CE marked, and most (83%) met Level 1 energy attenuation requirements of EN 1621-1 when tested. Of the 26 impacted IP, four were associated with impact injuries, including midshaft and distal clavicle fractures and a scapula and olecranon fracture. No associations between meeting EN 1621-1 requirements and impact injury were found (p = 0.5). There was no association between average force transmitted and impact injury (95% CI: 0.91–1.24); however, as maximum force transmitted increased, the odds of impact injury increased (95% CI: 1.01–1.2). These results indicate a high probability of impact injury at 50 kN, the limit of maximum transmitted force specified in EN 1621-1. Conclusion: The allowable transmitted force of EN 1621-1 may be too high to effectively reduce the probability of impact injury. This is not surprising, given human tolerance levels that are reported in literature. Reducing the force limit below the reported fracture tolerance limits might be difficult with current technology. However, there is scope to reduce the EN 1621-1 maximum limit of 50 kN transmitted force. A reduction in the maximum force limit would improve rider protection and appears feasible, as 77% of tested IP recorded a maximum force <35 kN. This level of transmitted force is estimated to be associated with <20% probability of impact injury. While the performance of IP available to Australian riders is not regulated, most IP was CE marked. The results indicate a significant association between maximum transmitted force, tested according to EN 1621-1 procedures, and impact injury. Further investigation of the EN 1621-1 requirements may be warranted. This work will interest those targeting protective equipment for motorcyclists as a mechanism for reducing injury to these vulnerable road users.Item Metadata only A GPS-based examination of the mobility and exposure to risk of older drivers from rural and urban areas(Australasian College of Road Safety, 2015) Thompson, J.; Baldock, M.; Mathias, J.; Wundersitz, L.This study examines whether older rural drivers are restricted in their driving mobility and are exposed to more risk when driving than older urban drivers. Participants (aged >= 75 years) from rural (n = 28) and urban (n = 28) areas of South Australia were monitored using GPS devices and telephone-based travel diaries. The rural and urban participants did not differ in the number of trips that they made for discretionary or non-discretionary activities. However, while rural participants were exposed to fewer intersections (potential conflict points) in their driving than urban older drivers, they drove further and for longer periods on roads with speed limits of 100 km/h or higher, and at GPS-measured speeds of 100 km/h or faster. Therefore, they are not less mobile but have a higher exposure to road conditions that are more likely to lead to serious and fatal injuries in a crash.Item Metadata only How safe are children when transported by bicycle?(Taylor and Francis, 2016) Oxley, J.; O'Hern, S.; Raftery, S.; Woolley, J.Objectives: With the increasing popularity of cycling generally and availability of new bicycle child carriers, there is an emerging interest in the safety of child bicycle passengers and riders. However, very little is known about the nature and extent of injuries to child bicycle riders and passengers. The aim of this study was to enhance our understanding of child safety in bike transportation and to identify injury patterns and outcomes. Methods: Analyses of Victorian hospital data (emergency department presentations and hospital admissions) were undertaken to describe and compare injury outcomes among children aged 0-3 years, 4-6 years, and 7-10 years on bicycles. Data over the 15-year period, July 1, 1999, to June 30, 2014, were examined. Results: A total of 17,859 emergency department presentations and 4,794 hospitalizations were reported for child cyclists under the age of 10 years. The rate of emergency department presentations and hospital admissions per 100,000 population decreased by 1.5% (-2.8 to -0.2%) and 5.0% (-6.5 to -3.4%), respectively. For emergency department presentations, the most commonly injured body parts included the head (34.9%), elbows and forearms (14.6%), and wrist and hands (16.3%). For hospital admissions, the head was again the most commonly injured body region (36.5%), followed by the elbow and forearm (26.7%) and shoulder and upper arm (9.1%). Comparisons of injured body regions between age groups revealed that children aged 3 and under were significantly more likely to sustain injuries to the head that required hospital admissions compared to older age groups. In contrast, older children, between the ages of 7 and 10 years, were significantly more likely to sustain injuries to either the arms, wrists, or hands. Further analysis of the nature of injury revealed that children aged 3 and under had a significantly higher number of open wound injuries compared to older children. Conclusion: This article provides an exploratory and broad overview of the magnitude and severity of injuries among child bike riders and passengers and highlights that younger children are more likely to sustain head injuries compared to older children. This is likely the result of very young children being passengers on bicycles who are constrained in a seat or trailer with little protection or opportunity to mitigate injuries.Item Metadata only Contribution of structural incompatibility to asymmetrical injury risks in crashes between two passenger vehicles(Australasian College of Road Safety, 2012) Anderson, R.; Ponte, G.It is well known that mass ratio affects the probability of injury and death in both vehicles in two-vehicle crashes. Likewise, other evidence suggests that typical fourwheel drive (4WD) vehicles exhibit poorer than average aggressivity such that occupants of regular vehicles are more likely to be injured in a crash when it involves a 4WD. In this study, the ratio of the incidence of injury and death to drivers in two-vehicle crashes was calculated for crashes with different vehicle mass ratios. Injury ratios were calculated for crashes involving strictly two cars and again for those crashes where the heavier vehicle was a 4WD vehicle or a light truck (LT) and the lighter vehicle was a car. There is a common dependence of the injury risk ratio on vehicle mass ratio in both classes of crash, but there is an additional relative risk to the lighter vehicle driver when the heavier vehicle is a 4WD/LT. The effect is stronger for fatality ratios. Around twice as many drivers are killed per crash in car-to-4WD/LT crashes, indicating that the increased risk to the driver of the car is not completely offset by reduced risks to the driver of the 4WD/LT.Item Metadata only Changing licensing trends and travel mode choices of young adults(Australasian College of Road Safety, 2016) Bailey, T.; Wundersitz, L.; Raftery, S.; Baldock, M.; Smith, R.Analysis of driver licensing rates among young adults in Victoria, Australia, found declines in licensing since 2001. In 2014, over one-third of 18-24 year olds did not hold a licence. Also, a survey of 147 non-driving young Australians found the most frequent main reasons for not holding a licence included the difficulty of the licensing process or its expense, not liking driving or preferring walking. Over a third of those surveyed aged 25-30 said they had never learned to drive, or were still learning. Young Victorian adults are changing their travel modes by driving less, not at all or delaying getting a licence, along with strong preferences for other travel modes, such as public transport and walking. Potential road safety implications include reduced road deaths and injuries, but also an ongoing demand for safer infrastructure for vulnerable road users. Also, all drivers will increasingly experience a road system comprising users aged over fifty along with road safety measures targeting that age group.